The Birth of Printing
The Birth of Printing |
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In the recorded history of humanity, probably no invention has had a greater influence than the introduction of printing in the fifteenth century. The basis of this new technology was movable type, each piece consisting of a metal shaft with a letter of the alphabet in relief at one end. These metal letters could be easily arranged in any order, and mistakes could quickly be corrected. After organizing the metal letters to print the book at hand, the letters could then be reused for the next publication. Printing was the first major application of mass production and the use of interchangeable parts and one of the few applications of these techniques until the Industrial Revolution three centuries later.
Although simple in theory, there were a number of difficulties before printing could become a universal practice. The casting of the type had to be exact so that the surface of the page came out perfectly regular. Another impediment was the poor quality of the ink available in the fifteenth century. Early printers needed an ink that would readily and easily transfer from metal to paper. Finally, these printers needed a suitable press. The general solution to that problem came from adaptations of the wine press.
Johannes Gutenberg, born in Mainz in 1398, succeeded in developing all the basic essentials of printing through his experiments in the 1440s and 1450s, and in 1455 or 1456, printed the famous Bible that now bears his name. Many of his innovations were still employed as late as the early twentieth century.
The effects of Gutenberg's press were quickly felt throughout Europe. Just a few years after Gutenberg printed his first Bible, printing presses were set up all over Europe. Within ten years printing had spread to Italy, by 1470 a press was operating in France, and by 1489 England began printing books. Even the New World, then on the fringes of civilization, established an operating printing press by 1533. Remarkably, in just the first 50 years of printing, approximately 35,000 editions were issued by these new presses. For the first time in history, the written word was readily available and easily accessible, and within a short time the fields of science, art, religion, politics, and literature were transformed by printing.
Included in the exhibit are a few of the Library's examples of early printing. Of particular interest is the page from the Gutenberg Bible, the very first printed book.
The Springfield Library is extremely fortunate to count among its rare possessions this leaf from the original Gutenberg Bible dated 1456, the first book ever to be printed. Originally donated in 1952 by Mr. and Mrs. Chauncey A. Steiger, the page originated from an imperfect edition of the Bible. This leaf was obtained by Gabriel Wells of New York City in the early part of the century, who hoped to make it possible for many libraries to own a fragment of one of the most important books ever printed. In order to accomplish this he separated the leaves and bound each page into separate folio volumes. The Steigers were among the few fortunate enough to secure one of these folios.
Of particular interest is the way this printed page actually looks like a leaf from a hand-written illuminated manuscript of the Middle Ages. The reason for this is that the early printers modeled their first printed books after the hand-produced manuscripts of the Middle Ages, since these were the only examples of books they knew. The special qualities of printing that we take for granted today were yet unknown to these early pioneers. In fact, it was considered so important to imitate the illuminated manuscript that Gutenberg had the initials, which could have been printed, produced by hand. The red and blue XXVIII and the A, in the lower half of the first column, are examples of hand-written letters on this leaf.
Images: Detail of chapter heading and initial letter from Gutenberg Bible, Exodus, Chapter 28 Images: Binding from Caxton's edition of the Polychronicon
Images: Title page from the Enchiridion. Note the parts of the title printed in red and the extensive woodcut illustrations surrounding the title block. Images: The back cover from Terence's Comedies. Note the heavily incised illustration and the medieval metal clasps, used to 'lock' the book when on the shelf. This illustrates the extent to which early printing was influenced by the manuscript tradition.
Images: Title page of The Monument of Matrones also called The Lampe of Virginitie. Note the extensive illustrations around the title block and the printer's statement 'Cum privilegio'. As the printing industry grew, it was often necessary to obtain publication privileges from the government. The book is a compendium of stories about virtuous women, translated by Queen Elizabeth I, from the original French version of Queen Margaret of Navarre. The accompanying woodcut illustrates the queens mentioned in the text. Super quartum sententiarum impendio by Thomas Aquinas printed by Johannes de Colonia Venice 1481
These two extraordinary examples of incunabula ("cradle books" or books printed before 1501) clearly reflect the transition from the hand-made and illustrated manuscripts of the Middle Ages to the books of the coming print age. Both books have no title page nor table of contents. These were innovations introduced by later printers. Both are opened to the first page, which shows the combination of printed text and hand-produced illustration. And the illustrations here are particularly exquisite. By employing decorative illumination, such as that seen here, early printers made their books more acceptable to collectors accustomed to the illustrated manuscripts.
Images: Decorative binding of Boniface text This early publication from London, also known as Glanvil's Witches, is interesting for a variety of reasons. First, it reflects the interest in witches that was particularly intense at this time. And since there is good reason to think that this text made its way to New England shortly after publication, this book, and others like it, may have influenced the Salem witchcraft trials, which took place just 10 years later. The illustration, opposite the title page, also shows how important the visual image became in influencing popular perception early in the print era. Finally, this book reflects selling practices in this period. At the bottom of the title page it states that the book was "Printed for F. Collins at his Shop under the Temple Church...". Today, a book store is usually a separate business from the publisher that produces the books sold. At that time, book sellers often printed, or had printed for them, books they hoped to sell.
Images: Title page of Glanvil's Witches. The book is divided into two parts, one arguing the Scriptural validity of witches and witchcraft, the second evidencing true occurrences. Note the highly detailed frontispiece. With the accession of Queen Mary, who was a Catholic, in 1533, progress in well-made English translations of the Bible was set back, and reformers were forced to flee to Geneva. There they continued their work and in 1560 produced the so-called "Geneva Bible," seen here. The principal translators were William Whittingham, Anthony Gilbey, and Thomas Sampson. In some ways, being forced to relocate to Geneva had positive effects. Geneva was a stronghold of Calvinism, which meant that the translators had access to the most advanced Biblical scholarship of the day. And the stimulating atmosphere led to the creation of a Bible known for its innovative features. It was the first English Bible to be printed in roman type and the first in which chapters were divided into verses. It also was printed in a size which made it suitable for home reading. These characteristics made it the most popular Bible in England for at least three generations, which is reflected in the fact that 140 editions were printed between 1560 and 1640. It was read by Shakespeare, Bunyan and many of the participants in the English Civil War, and thus exerted a profound influence on English literature.
Images: Title page of Geneva Bible. Note the illustrations surrounding the text block, including the use of coats of arms for the tribes of ancient Israel Click on thumbnails for full-page images.
A Leaf of the Gutenberg Bible
Leaf from Gutenberg Bible (for much larger image click here). Gutenberg appears to have solved the problem of the proper ink to use for printing, since the letter forms are as crisp and clear as they were more than 500 years ago. His solution remains a mystery.
Polychronicon by Ranulph Higden
printed by William Caxton in 1495
William Caxton, the very first English printer, was born in Kent in 1422. He spent a great part of his life in Bruges working as a merchant and serving as a Consul for the English Government. He was an example of a man very much involved in business and government, but who spent his leisure devoted to literature. He was instrumental in bringing many great literary classics to the attention of the English people, and was known as an excellent translator of the ancient Greek and Roman texts. But his most important legacy, and what he is most known for today, is his contribution to early printing. Caxton, almost by himself, brought printing to England. Therefore, his books are especially prized today.
Probably few of Caxton's books have inspired more interest and research than the Polychronicon. It seems to have originated with Roger, Monk of St. Werberg, in Chester, who in the early fourteenth century arranged a compilation of various old chronicles of the Middle Ages. Ranulph Higden, of the same monastery, who died before 1360, enlarged upon the work of Roger. In 1387, Trevisa, Chaplain to the Earl of Berkeley, translated the Latin of Higden into English. Almost a century later, Caxton revised the Trevisa manuscript and continued the chronicle up to 1460. Caxton titled his contribution "Liber ultimus," and it is one of the most important Caxton documents since it is his only original work.
Text from the Polychronicon describing the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Note that this extract is written in early English, based on Trevisa's translation. The printing press became a major influence in the increased use of the vernacular language in writing. For a much larger image of this page, click here.
First page of 'Liber ultimus', Caxton's contribution to the Polychronicon. Note the handwritten notes in the margin.
Enchiridion der Kleine Catechismus by Martin Luther
printed by Jacobum Berwald in Leipzig 1549
This small catechism for children was published in Germany in 1549, just a little more than 30 years after Luther made his famous break with the Catholic Church in 1517 and launched the Protestant Reformation. More than one scholar has argued that, without the mouthpiece print provided Luther, his challenge to the Church hierarchy would probably have failed to reach a broad audience and would have remained a local event. The very fact that books like this one, directed toward children, could be printed so early in the history of this movement indicates the important place printing played in spreading ideas in the early Gutenberg era.
Text with accompanying woodcut illustrating the Commandment against murder
An early colophon stating the name of the printer and the place and year of publication
Comoediae, multo maiore, quamhactenus unguami, vigilantia repurgatae by Terence printed by Nicolaum Brylingerum in Basil 1561
This small book is a collection of the major comedies of the ancient Roman poet Terence. It reflects the strong interest, in the early print era, in publishing works of ancient Greek and Roman authors. Note the beautiful cover design as well as the clasps. The use of clasps was a more characteristic practice of the Middle Ages, but they were often used in the early print era to imitate the look of medieval manuscripts.
Title page with woodcut illustration. Note that the place and date of publication is shown here. There is no colophon at the end of the text.
Monument of Matrones by Thomas Bentley
published by Henrie Denham 1582
The Monument of Matrones contains seven treatises, the first five concerning prayer and meditation, the last two with precepts and examples. This is an excellent example of printing in sixteenth century England.
First page of the seventh treatise. Note the detailed scrollwork around the text block and the use of different font faces.
Liber sextus decretalium cum apparatu by Pope Boniface VIII printed by Johannes Andrew Nuremberg 1482
First page of Liber sextus Decretalium by Boniface VIII. Note the continuance of manuscript traditions in this early printed book: the beautifully illuminated initial, and the use of hand-painted letters in red and blue.
Page from the Boniface text. Note again the use of hand-painted initials, as well as marginalia and a running title entered by hand.
First page of Constitutiones by Clement V. In the manuscript tradition, different books were often bound together. That tradition was continued in some early books, as this one, where this second book is bound in with the Boniface text.
First page of Aquinas text with illuminated initial. Again, note the lack of a title page or table of contents in these early printed books.
Detail of hand-illuminated initial from Aquinas text.
Saducismus Triumphatus: or Full and Plain Evidence Concerning Witches and Apparitions by Joseph Glanvil printed by F. Collins London 1681
Title page of second part of book, describing evidence for the existence of witches. Note the use of images on the facing page to illustrate the stories contained in this section.
Page of text from the second part of the book. Note the description of using 'bolts' to shackle supposed witches to protect their victims. Similar methods were used during the Salem Witch Trials in New England in 1692.
The Bible: Translated according to the Ebrew and Greeke printed by Robert Barker London 1611
First page of Book of Exodus. Note the use of a printed initial, rather than a hand-painted one. Note also the use of printed marginal notes, a practice which continues to the present day. The use of printed marginalia reached a high point with the Aldine Press in Venice in the early 16th century.
